Big sky Big money Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Big sky Big money - Movie Review Example Never at once have I had of politicians being financed by rogues who want something else once the politician assumes office. This information has been withheld from the media and the rest assumed to be propaganda and hence I have never paid any attention to such â€Å"rumors† before. This information is very pertinent and all people not only in the affected regions or this country but to the world in general. The message the documentary is passing in one word is vetting. It is important and necessary for the public to be vetting the aspiring politicians about their sources of finance in detail before being elected into office. The vetting should also be done by investigative officers who will follow the money trail and avoid such incidences in future as portrayed by the documentary. The IRS and other tax bodies should be very keen about which organizations are being exempted from taxation. This exemption should be carried out after thorough investigation of the organization in order to prove beyond any doubt that it is a welfare organization and deserves the

American medical care Essay Example for Free

American medical care Essay These early immigrants survived the harsh times and difficult American climate as well as the wilderness on primitive basic instincts. The early settlements were often ravaged by starvation and disease. During the colonial era, doctors education was informal. Most were literate, but some who were raised outside of New England were not. A man who wanted to practice medicine did not need any type of certification. Most did have a period of apprenticeship with an established physician, but even this was not a requirement. Up until the late 19th century, very few doctors had a college education. Medical facilities were unofficial. Most patients were treated in their homes. However, even the smallest towns had poorhouses, where needy people could live and receive limited medical care. The few hospitals that opened in North America during the colonial period were opened in places like Quebec and New Orleans. Public health was unknown in North America at this time. Towns and cities did not have boards of health except during times of epidemics. Because most places did not have public water or sewer systems, most Americans got their water from pumps and used outhouses until well into the 19th century. There was no trash collection so the streets became a breeding ground for all types of disease. There were a few attempts to influence public health. For example, when smallpox vaccinations were developed in the 18th century, many small town doctors had groups of people that had to stay quarantined for a few days to make sure they only developed a mild case of smallpox. Cures may have killed more people than the diseases themselves. The public developed a very skeptical attitude towards regular doctors. In the early 19th century, the do it yourself attitude of many Americans was popular. These people freely gave medical advice, emphasized the participant of the patient in his or her own treatment. However, other medical treatments were available also. Probably snake oil is best remembered. Andrew Taylor Still started the practice of osteopathy. Osteopathy incorporated bodily manipulations, similar to those seen in modern chiropractics. In osteopathy, these manipulations affected the magnetic flow of energy in the body. Osteopathy discouraged use of medicines, but did not forbid them. Another reaction against heroic medicine was homeopathy. A university-trained German doctor named Samuel Hahnemann started it. Heinemann said that doctors were giving their patients too much medicine. He believed that tiny amounts of drugs should be diluted in water before being given to a patient and that practitioners should take very thorough medical histories of each patient. Quackery was a way to fool people into believing they were being cured while making money from them. Quackery had even been licensed in London, but it was completely ignored by the America government for hundreds of years. Hydropathy was another special case. The healing power of water, hydropathy indicated the value of the rest cure, importance of having like-minded people around, the usefulness of light exercise and the fact that women who wore loose-fitting clothing generally felt better and had fewer physical complaints than the ones who did. Another special case is the entire issue of faith-only healing. While empirical evidence in favor of faith-only healing is lacking, anecdotal evidence suggests that some people who pray do experience spontaneous decrease of certain diseases. The late 19th century saw major changes in medicine in the United States. Medicine went from being medieval to incorporating many elements of modern science. The advances in chemistry, and biology had major impacts on medicine. As medical practitioners began to understand that the body was comprised of basic chemicals and not mysterious humors, effective treatments for diseases and injuries were developed. As medicine became more scientific, doctors needed both training and  licensing. In 1847, Dr. Nathan Davis founded the American Medical Association (AMA) in Philadelphia to help create professional standards for doctors and set minimal educational requirements. Medical colleges opened up across the country, increasing requirements from a few months without any college background to a number of years with a college degree. However, these colleges provided an extremely unpredictable level of medical education, with some of them a diploma and others provided a to notch medical education. As American cities exploded in size during the 19th century due to immigration from Europe, public health became more of an issue. With many hundreds of thousands of people living in cities: extremely crowded, unsanitary conditions; tuberculosis was often at epidemic levels in the cities. During the 19th century, people understood that TB was not caused by miasma, but was caused by bacteria. People with TB were sometimes sent out of the city to places in the country, where the cleaner air seemed to help their recovery. It was obvious that people needed clean water for drinking, and bathing. So cities started massive sewer projects to help bring clean water into the cities while removing wastewater from the city. Dead animal remains and garbage littered the street until the late 1800s when cities started sanitation crews to take the trash out of town and dumps to move the waste to. Many cities started dispensaries so the poor could receive treatment and medications for low cost. With the urban population explosion, the poorhouses (probably todays HMO Urgent Care) became even larger and harder to manage. With new medical advances, people needed to be in big cities to receive certain types of treatment. Americans began to build hospitals across the country in the 19th century.  The new hospitals were generally cleaner than the old poorhouses.

Sanfoins Future in Wyoming :: Sanfoin Wyoming Farming Environment Essays

Sanfoin's Future in Wyoming Sainfoin, Onobrychis viciifolia is a perennial forage legume that is native to Mediterranean regions around the Black and Caspain Seas and north into Russia. Sainfoin leaves are oddly pinnate with 13-21 leaflets per leaf and produce an erect flower pink to rose in color. Sainfoin has been introduced into many other countries including Iran, Turkey, Greece, Yugoslavia, Italy, Bulgaria, Spain, Switzerland, Germany, Soviet Union, Poland, Norway and the United Kingdom. It is known that sainfoin has been grown in Europe for the past 450 years. New varieties of sainfoin such as ‘Eski’, ‘Remont’, ‘Renumex’, ‘Melrose’, and ‘Nova’ have been developed and introduced into the United States and Canada starting in the 1950s. (Gray, 2004, p. 2) Sainfoin is a non-bloating legume that has nitrogen fixation capabilities and can be used in a forage mixture. Sainfoin also is extremely palatable and nutritious for all classes of livestock and wildlife. Livestock actually prefer sainfoin even when other plants species are readily available. Other uses include wildlife habitat restoration, wildlife food plots or as a legume component in the conservation reserve program (CRP). Sainfoin is often compared to alfalfa based on its nitrogen fixation, forage capabilities, and nutritional value. The main advantages of sainfoin are the earlier maturation rate, non-bloating qualities, resistance to the alfalfa weevil and higher digestible nutrients when compared to alfalfa. Another important advantage over alfalfa is that sainfoin is resistant to the root rot phase. The earlier maturation allows for earlier spring forage for grazing and hay cutting which is beneficial to livestock operations (Gray, 2004, p. 2). Sainfoin is primarily used as a hay or pasture crop and has many characteristics beneficial to farming and ranching operations in the western states such as Wyoming, North and South Dakota, Montana and New Mexico where annual precipitation in generally low. Sainfoin is very drought resistant and does better in cold soils than alfalfa (Stannard, M). It is also shown that sainfoin thrives in soils with a pH 7.0 to 8.0 that are too dry for clover and alfalfa. Sainfoin is longer lived in dryland applications opposed to irrigated land but generally needs re-seeding every five to six years. Another interesting positive side-affect about sainfoin is the relationship it shares with honey and leaf cutting bees. The large pink flower attracts these insects and on top of producing large amounts of high quality honey, the sainfoin showed increased seed production when the bees were present.

Correlational Research

Correlational Research There are many types of correlational research. The commonality among all types of correlational research is that they explore relationships between variables. Where descriptive research only described what was going on, correlational research talks about the link between different things. It is important to understand that correlational research does NOT tell us that Variable A caused Variable B, but rather that they are somehow related. For example, if I told you that there was a correlation between domestic violence (violence between family members) and bowling, you would look at me strangely. But there is a relationship between the variables (variable 1- domestic violence, and variable 2- bowling). As more people bowl in the US, more domestic violence occurs. [pic]  Ã‚   [pic] Does that mean that bowling causes domestic violence- like you had bad game and take it out on a loved one? Or domestic violence causes bowling- like you fight with a sibling and feel the need to take it out on some pins? As you have already guessed- one does not cause the other to occur, but they are related- for every time people bowl, I can predict that domestic violence will go up, and every time domestic violence goes down I should be able to find a lane at the local bowling alley. There is a hidden variable that links both of them together. In this case it is winter time. In the winter more people bowl and more people stay in their homes (which increases the chances of domestic violence). Direction of a Correlation [pic] [pic] Before we examine the different types of correlational research methods, understand that correlations can go in two directions: positive and negative. †¢ Positive Correlation: when two variables go in the SAME direction. For example, domestic violence and bowling. When bowling goes up, so does domestic violence. When domestic violence decreases, so does bowling. [pic] †¢ Negative Correlation: here the two variables go in DIFFERENT directions. For example, consumption of garlic and dating (now I am making this one up). The less garlic you eat, the more you date. The more garlic you eat, the less the date. One variable going in one direction can be used to predict the other variable going in the opposite direction. [pic] Correlational Coefficient Scientists measure the strength of a correlation by using a number called a correlational coefficient. Now you do not have to know how they get the number, but you should know what it means when you see it. The number range from -1 to +1. If two variables (like studying and grades) have a correlation above zero (like +. 76) then you have a positive correlation and the more you study, the better grades you have. If the number is below zero (like -. 2) then you have a negative correlation and when one variable goes up the other goes down (like garlic and dating). If two variables have a correlation of zero then they have NO relationship with each other. The closer the numbers go to either +1 or -1, the stronger the correlation. The strength has nothing to do with whether the number is positive of negative. A correlation of -. 88 is stronger than one that is +. 56. The closer the number gets to zero (whether positive or negative), the weaker the correlation. Are you a little confused? Try this! Types of Correlational Studies There are many different ways to show a correlation between two variables. Let's discuss some of the more popular ways; the survey method and naturalistic observation. The Survey Method [pic] Perhaps the most common type of research around is survey research. Every time you receive a letter in the mail asking you to take a minute and answer a few questions, or get a phone call begging for ten minutes of your time to speak about how you feel about , you are experiencing the survey method of research. All surveys have one thing in common, they ask questions. Now there are good and bad things about surveys in research. The good- no matter how you do it, internet, mail, phone, in person- they are fairly cheap. You can cover large populations of people easily if you use the phone or internet. The bad aspects of surveys are that first, the response rate is REALLY low (for every 100 mailing you send out, you will be lucky to get one back). Second, people can lie on the survey so you can always question the validity of your data. Let's break down the survey method as a tool of correlational study. Pretend our hypothesis was the more garlic people eat, the less they date. First, we have to come up with some survey questions (pretend they ask about the amount of garlic one has eaten in the past 6 months and how much they have dated in the past sixth months). Hopefully, when people answer the survey, we will see that people who have stated that they have eaten a lot of garlic have also answered that they have dated less (a negative correlation). But who are we going to give the survey to? As with ALL types of studies (except some case studies) we must choose a sample of people to take the survey (a sample is just a group of subjects). We have to first identify a population of people from which we are going to get the sample. The population includes anyone who can possibly be chosen to be part of the sample. If we are studying anorexic women and their dating habits we would choose a sample from a population of anorexic women. In the case of garlic and dating, I am going to limit my population to single men and women between the ages of 18-25 from the Suwanee area (if I do not limit my population, then I would have to start contacting people from all around the world). Now, how do I pick people to be a part of my sample? Do I call all my single friends in the Suwanee area and give them the survey? That would not be a very fair way of doing it. To make the survey valid I MUST randomly select a sample from the population. Random selection means that every person in my population has an equal chance of being selected for the survey. If I can do this, then my sample has a greatly likelihood of actually representing the larger population I am studying. How do I randomly sample my population- I can randomly pick names out of a phonebook (but in a way that is unfair to single people in Suwanee who do not have phones)- in other words, finding a truly random sample is not easy. Naturalistic Observation Another correlational research method is called naturalistic observation (although you can also use it as a descriptive research tool as well). Naturalistic observation is when a researcher attempts to observe their subjects in their natural habitats without interacting with them at all. Pretend I had a hypothesis: children who experience violence in the home or violent people. If I wanted to use naturalistic observation I would find groups of kids and watch them in their home life and compare that to their social life. I would follow them around everywhere they go. I would never interact with them- but just watch. If I see that every time a child experiences violence at home they are violent, I could claim that violence in the home and violent societal behavior are related, but I would NEVER know if the violence at home is causing the violence in society (it could be one of a million other things). Once again, at most, these types of studies show correlation. The pinnacle of all science is if it proves causation. Correlational Research Correlational Research There are many types of correlational research. The commonality among all types of correlational research is that they explore relationships between variables. Where descriptive research only described what was going on, correlational research talks about the link between different things. It is important to understand that correlational research does NOT tell us that Variable A caused Variable B, but rather that they are somehow related. For example, if I told you that there was a correlation between domestic violence (violence between family members) and bowling, you would look at me strangely. But there is a relationship between the variables (variable 1- domestic violence, and variable 2- bowling). As more people bowl in the US, more domestic violence occurs. [pic]  Ã‚   [pic] Does that mean that bowling causes domestic violence- like you had bad game and take it out on a loved one? Or domestic violence causes bowling- like you fight with a sibling and feel the need to take it out on some pins? As you have already guessed- one does not cause the other to occur, but they are related- for every time people bowl, I can predict that domestic violence will go up, and every time domestic violence goes down I should be able to find a lane at the local bowling alley. There is a hidden variable that links both of them together. In this case it is winter time. In the winter more people bowl and more people stay in their homes (which increases the chances of domestic violence). Direction of a Correlation [pic] [pic] Before we examine the different types of correlational research methods, understand that correlations can go in two directions: positive and negative. †¢ Positive Correlation: when two variables go in the SAME direction. For example, domestic violence and bowling. When bowling goes up, so does domestic violence. When domestic violence decreases, so does bowling. [pic] †¢ Negative Correlation: here the two variables go in DIFFERENT directions. For example, consumption of garlic and dating (now I am making this one up). The less garlic you eat, the more you date. The more garlic you eat, the less the date. One variable going in one direction can be used to predict the other variable going in the opposite direction. [pic] Correlational Coefficient Scientists measure the strength of a correlation by using a number called a correlational coefficient. Now you do not have to know how they get the number, but you should know what it means when you see it. The number range from -1 to +1. If two variables (like studying and grades) have a correlation above zero (like +. 76) then you have a positive correlation and the more you study, the better grades you have. If the number is below zero (like -. 2) then you have a negative correlation and when one variable goes up the other goes down (like garlic and dating). If two variables have a correlation of zero then they have NO relationship with each other. The closer the numbers go to either +1 or -1, the stronger the correlation. The strength has nothing to do with whether the number is positive of negative. A correlation of -. 88 is stronger than one that is +. 56. The closer the number gets to zero (whether positive or negative), the weaker the correlation. Are you a little confused? Try this! Types of Correlational Studies There are many different ways to show a correlation between two variables. Let's discuss some of the more popular ways; the survey method and naturalistic observation. The Survey Method [pic] Perhaps the most common type of research around is survey research. Every time you receive a letter in the mail asking you to take a minute and answer a few questions, or get a phone call begging for ten minutes of your time to speak about how you feel about , you are experiencing the survey method of research. All surveys have one thing in common, they ask questions. Now there are good and bad things about surveys in research. The good- no matter how you do it, internet, mail, phone, in person- they are fairly cheap. You can cover large populations of people easily if you use the phone or internet. The bad aspects of surveys are that first, the response rate is REALLY low (for every 100 mailing you send out, you will be lucky to get one back). Second, people can lie on the survey so you can always question the validity of your data. Let's break down the survey method as a tool of correlational study. Pretend our hypothesis was the more garlic people eat, the less they date. First, we have to come up with some survey questions (pretend they ask about the amount of garlic one has eaten in the past 6 months and how much they have dated in the past sixth months). Hopefully, when people answer the survey, we will see that people who have stated that they have eaten a lot of garlic have also answered that they have dated less (a negative correlation). But who are we going to give the survey to? As with ALL types of studies (except some case studies) we must choose a sample of people to take the survey (a sample is just a group of subjects). We have to first identify a population of people from which we are going to get the sample. The population includes anyone who can possibly be chosen to be part of the sample. If we are studying anorexic women and their dating habits we would choose a sample from a population of anorexic women. In the case of garlic and dating, I am going to limit my population to single men and women between the ages of 18-25 from the Suwanee area (if I do not limit my population, then I would have to start contacting people from all around the world). Now, how do I pick people to be a part of my sample? Do I call all my single friends in the Suwanee area and give them the survey? That would not be a very fair way of doing it. To make the survey valid I MUST randomly select a sample from the population. Random selection means that every person in my population has an equal chance of being selected for the survey. If I can do this, then my sample has a greatly likelihood of actually representing the larger population I am studying. How do I randomly sample my population- I can randomly pick names out of a phonebook (but in a way that is unfair to single people in Suwanee who do not have phones)- in other words, finding a truly random sample is not easy. Naturalistic Observation Another correlational research method is called naturalistic observation (although you can also use it as a descriptive research tool as well). Naturalistic observation is when a researcher attempts to observe their subjects in their natural habitats without interacting with them at all. Pretend I had a hypothesis: children who experience violence in the home or violent people. If I wanted to use naturalistic observation I would find groups of kids and watch them in their home life and compare that to their social life. I would follow them around everywhere they go. I would never interact with them- but just watch. If I see that every time a child experiences violence at home they are violent, I could claim that violence in the home and violent societal behavior are related, but I would NEVER know if the violence at home is causing the violence in society (it could be one of a million other things). Once again, at most, these types of studies show correlation. The pinnacle of all science is if it proves causation.

History of Coffee Essay

Coffee is one of the world’s most poplar beverages. Some claim it is the most widely consumed liquid in the world aside from water. Coffee is more than a beverage , however. It is a memory , anticipation, a lifetime of consoling moments of modest pleasure woven into our lives. Coffee’s success as a beverage undoubtedly owes both to the caffeine it harbors and to its sensory pleasure. Coffee lovers come to associate the energizing lift of the caffeine with richness and aroma of the beverage that delivers it. Coffee is grown in more than 50 countries around the world and the principal commercial crop of over a dozen countries, half of which earns 25% to 50% of their foreign exchange revenue from coffee exports. More than 10 billion pounds of coffee beans are grown per year, providing more than 20 million jobs. Coffee is indigenous to Ethiopia and was most likely discovered as a food before it became a drink. The most popular legend of how coffee was discovered involves an Abyssinian goat herder named kaldi. Kaldi awoke one night to find his goats dancing around a tree speckled with red cherries. When he tasted one of the cherries, he too started dancing with the goats. As interesting as this story may be it is more likely that coffee was used as a food supplement by wandering Ethiopian tribes-men. The tribes-men are said to have squashed the coffee cherries and carried them on long journeys, eating them for nourishment as needed. Later, the coffee cherries were soaked in water, possibly to make wine, but some historians say it was not until 1000 AD, when the Arabs discovered how to boil, that coffee was serve hot. Coffee was also believed to have medicinal properties. Avicenna, an Islamic physician and philosopher of the eleventh century, said of coffee: â€Å"It fortifies the members, it cleans the skin and dries up the humilities that are under it, and gives an excellent smell to all the body† CHAPTER – 1 HISTORY OF COFFEE HISTORY OF COFFEE [pic] Palestinian women grinding coffee the old fashioned way, 1905 The history of coffee goes at least as far back as the fifteenth century, though coffee’s origins remain unclear. It had been believed that Ethiopian ancestors of today’s Oromo people were the first to have discovered and recognized the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant. However, no direct evidence has been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant or even known about it, earlier than the 17th century. The story of Kaldi, the 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee, did not appear in writing until 1671 and is probably apocryphal. From Ethiopia, coffee was said to have spread to Egypt and Yemen. The arliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed, in a similar way to how it is now prepared. By the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia, Turkey, and northern Africa. Coffee then spread to Italy, and to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and tothe Americas. Origins Etymology: The word â€Å"coffee† entered English in 1598 via Dutch koffie. This word was created via Turkish kahve, the Turkish pronunciation Arabic qahwa, a truncation of qahhwat al-bun or wine of the bean. One possible origin of the name is the Kingdom of Kaffa in Ethiopia, where the coffee plant originated; its name there is bunn or bunna. Legendary accounts. There are several legendary accounts of the origin of the drink itself. One account involves the Yemenite Sufi mystic Shaikh ash-Shadhili. When traveling in Ethiopia, the legend goes; he observed goats of unusual vitality, and, upon trying the berries that the goats had been eating, experienced the same vitality. A similar â€Å"Legend of Dancing Goats† attributes the discovery of coffee to an Ethiopian goatherder named Kaldi. The story of Kaldi did not appear in writing until 1671, and these stories are considered to be apocryphal. It used to be believed Ethiopian ancestors of today’s Oromo tribe, were the first to have recognized the energizing effect of the native coffee plant. Studies of genetic diversity have been performed on Coffea arabica varieties, found to be of low diversity but which retained some residual heterozygosity from ancestral materials, and closely-related diploid species Coffea canephora and C.liberica; however, no direct evidence has ever been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant, or known about it there, earlier than the seventeenth century. The Muslim world: The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge Of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia. It was in Yemen that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed as they are today. From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Muslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas. Syrian Bedouin from a beehive village in Aleppo, Syria, sipping the traditional murra (bitter) coffee, 1930. The earliest mention of coffee noted by the literary coffee merchant Philippe Sylvestre Dufour is a reference to bunchum in the works of the 10th century CE Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, known as Rhazes in the West, but more definite information on the preparation of a beverage from the roasted coffee berries dates from several centuries later. The most important of the early writers on coffee was io-de-caprio, who in 1587 compiled a work tracing the history and legal controversies of coffee entitled Umdat al safwa fi hill al-qahwa. He reported that one Sheikh, Jamal-al-Din al-Dhabhani, mufti of Aden, was the first to adopt the use of coffee (circa 1454). Coffee’s usefulness in driving away sleep made it popular among Sufis. A translation traces the spread of coffee from Arabia Felix (the present day Yemen) northward to Mecca and Medina, and then to the larger cities of Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, and Istanbul. Coffee beans were first exported from Ethiopia to Yemen. Yemeni traders brought coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the bean. The first coffeehouse opened in Istanbul in 1554. Coffee was at first not well received. In 1511, it was forbidden for its stimulating effect by conservative, orthodox imams at a theological court in Mecca. However, the popularity of the drink led these bans to be overturned in 1524 by an order of the Ottoman Turkish Sultan Selim I, with Grand Mufti Mehmet Ebussuud el-Imadi issuing a celebrated fatwa allowing the consumption of coffee. In Cairo, Egypt, a similar ban was instituted in 1532, and the coffeehouses and warehouses containing coffee beans were sacked. Similarly, coffee was banned by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church some time before the 12th century. However, in the second half of the 19th century, Ethiopian attitudes softened towards coffee drinking, and its consumption spread rapidly between 1880 and 1886; according to Richard Pankhurst, â€Å"this was largely due to [Emperor] Menilek, who himself drank it, and to Abuna Matewos who did much to dispel the belief of the clergy that it was a Muslim drink. † Europe [pic] Dutch engraving of Mocha in 1692 Coffee was noted in Ottoman Aleppo by the German physician botanist Leonhard Rauwolf, the first European to mention it, as chaube, in 1573; Rauwolf was closely followed by descriptions from other European travellers. Coffee was first imported to Italy from the Ottoman Empire. The vibrant trade between Venice and the Muslims in North Africa, Egypt, and the East brought a large variety of African goods, including coffee, to this leading European port. Venetian merchants introduced coffee-drinking to the wealthy in Venice, charging them heavily for the beverage. In this way, coffee was introduced to Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted after controversy over whether it was acceptable during Lent was settled in its favor by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the drink. The first European coffee house (apart from those in the Ottoman Empire, mentioned above) was opened in Venice in 1645. England Largely through the efforts of the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, coffee became available in England no later than the 16th century according to Leonhard Rauwolf’s 1583 account. The first coffeehouse in England was opened in St. Michael’s Alley in Cornhill. The proprietor was Pasqua Rosee, the servant of Daniel Edwards, a trader in Turkish goods. Edwards imported the coffee and assisted Rosee in setting up the establishment. Oxford’s Queen’s Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is still in existence today. By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses throughout England. Popularity of coffeehouses spread rapidly in Europe, and later, America. The banning of women from coffeehouses was not universal, but does appear to have been common in Europe. In Germany women frequented them, but in England they were banned. Many believed coffee to have several medicinal properties in this period. For example, a 1661 tract entitled â€Å"A character of coffee and coffee-houses†, written by one â€Å"M. P. â€Å", lists some of these perceived virtues: Not everyone was in favour of this new commodity, however. For example, the anonymous 1674 â€Å"Women’s Petition against Coffee† declared: France Antoine Galland (1646-1715) in his aforementioned translation described the Muslim association with coffee, tea and chocolate: â€Å"We are indebted to these great [Arab] physicians for introducing coffee to the modern world through their writings, as well as sugar, tea, and chocolate. † Galland reported that he was informed by Mr. de la Croix, the interpreter of King Louis XIV of France, that coffee was brought to Paris by a certain Mr. Thevenot, who had travelled through the East. On his return to that city in 1657, Thevenot gave some of the beans to his friends, one of whom was de la Croix. However, the major spread of the popularity of this beverage in Paris was soon to come. In 1669, Soleiman Agha, Ambassador from Sultan Mehmed IV, arrived in Paris with his entourage bringing with him a large quantity of coffee beans. Not only did they provide their French and European guests with coffee to drink, but they also donated some beans to the royal court. Between July 1669 and May 1670, the Ambassador managed to firmly establish the custom of drinking coffee among Parisians. [pic]. Melange in Vienna Austria The first coffeehouse in Austria opened in Vienna in 1683 after the Battle of Vienna, by using supplies from the spoils obtained after defeating the Turks. The officer who received the coffee beans, Polish military officer of Ukrainian origin Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki, opened the coffee house and helped popularize the custom of adding sugar and milk to the coffee. Until recently, this was celebrated in Viennese coffeehouses by hanging a picture of Kulczycki in the window. Melange is the typical Viennese coffee, which comes mixed with hot foamed milk and a glass of water. Netherlands The race among Europeans to make off with some live coffee trees or beans was eventually won by the Dutch in the late 17th century, when they allied with the natives of Kerala against the Portuguese and brought some live plants back from Malabar to Holland, where they were grown in greenhouses. The Dutch began growing coffee at their forts in Malabar, India, and in 1699 took some to Batavia in Java, in what is now Indonesia. Within a few years the Dutch colonies (Java in Asia, Surinam in Americas) had become the main suppliers of coffee to Europe. Americas. Gabriel de Clieu brought coffee seedlings to Martinique in the Caribbean circa 1720. Those sprouts flourished and 50 years later there were 18,680 coffee trees in Martinique enabling the spread of coffee cultivation to Haiti, Mexico and other islands of the Caribbean. Coffee also found its way to the island of Reunion in the Indian Ocean known as the Isle of Bourbon. The plant produced smaller beans and was deemed a different variety of Arabica known as var. Bourbon. The Santos coffee of Brazil and the Oaxaca coffee of Mexico are the progeny of that Bourbon tree. Circa 1727, the Emperor of Brazil sent Francisco de Mello Palheta to French Guinea to obtain coffee seeds to become a part of the coffee market. Francisco initially had difficulty obtaining these seeds yet he captivated the French Governor’s wife and she in turn, sent him enough seeds and shoots which would commence the coffee industry of Brazil. In 1893, the coffee from Brazil was introduced into Kenya and Tanzania (Tanganyika), not far from its place of origin in Ethiopia, 600 years prior, ending its transcontinental journey. The French colonial plantations relied heavily on African slave laborers. Ancient Production of coffee The first step in Europeans’ wresting the means of production was effected by Nicolaes Witsen, the enterprising burgomaster of Amsterdam and member of the governing board of the Dutch East India Company who urged Joan van Hoorn, the Dutch governor at Batavia that some coffee plants be obtained at the export port of Mocha in Yemen, the source of Europe’s supply, and established in the Dutch East Indies; the project of raising many plants from the seeds of the first shipment met with such success that the Dutch East India Company was able to supply Europe’s demand with â€Å"Java coffee† by 1719. Encouraged by their success, they soon had coffee plantations in Ceylon Sumatra and other Sunda islands. Coffee trees were soon grown under glass at the Hortus Botanicus of Leiden, whence slips were generously extended to other botanical gardens. Dutch representatives at the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Utrecht presented their French counterparts with a coffee plant, which was grown on at the Jardin du Roi, predecessor of the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris. The introduction of coffee to the Americas was effected by Captain Gabriel des Clieux, who obtained cuttings from the reluctant botanist Antoine de Jussieu, who was loath to disfigure the king’s coffee tree. Clieux, when water rations dwindled during a difficult voyage, shared his portion with his precious plants and protected them from a Dutchman, perhaps an agent of the Provinces jealous of the Batavian trade. Clieux nurtured the plants on his arrival in the West Indies, and established them in Guadeloupe and Saint- Domingue in addition to Martinique, where a blight had struck the cacao plantations, which were replaced by coffee plantations in a space of three years, is attributed to France through its colonization of many parts of the continent starting with the Martinique and the colonies of the West Indies where the first French coffee plantations were founded. The first coffee plantation in Brazil occurred in 1727 when Lt. Col. Francisco de Melo Palheta smuggled seeds, still essentially from the germ plasm originally taken from Yemen to Batavia, from French Guiana. By the 1800s, Brazil’s harvests would turn coffee from an elite indulgence to a drink for the masses. Brazil, which like most other countries cultivates coffee as a commercial commodity, relied heavily on slave labor from Africa for the viability of the plantations until the abolition of slavery in 1888. The success of coffee in 17th-century Europe was paralleled with the spread of the habit of tobacco smoking all over the continent during the course of the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48). For many decades in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Brazil was the biggest producer of coffee and a virtual monopolist in the trade. However, a policy of maintaining high prices soon opened opportunities to other nations, such as Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Indonesia and Vietnam, now second only to Brazil as the major coffee producer in the world. Large-scale production in Vietnam began following normalization of trade relations with the US in 1995. Nearly all of the coffee grown there is Robusta. Despite the origins of coffee cultivation in Ethiopia, that country produced only a small amount for export until the Twentieth Century, and much of that not from the south of the country but from the environs of Harar in the northeast. The Kingdom of Kaffa, home of the plant, was estimated to produce between 50,000 and 60,000 kilograms of coffee beans in the 1880s. Commercial production effectively began in 1907 with the founding of the inland port of Gambela, and greatly increased afterwards: 100,000 kilograms of coffee was exported from Gambela in 1908, while in 1927-8 over 4 million kilograms passed through that port. Coffee plantations were also developed in Arsi Province at the same time, and were eventually exported by means of the Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway. While only 245,000 kilograms were freighted by the Railway, this amount jumped to 2,240,000 kilograms by 1922, surpassed exports of â€Å"Harari† coffee by 1925, and reached 9,260,000 kilograms in 1936. Australia is a minor coffee producer, with little product for export, but its coffee history goes back to 1880 when the first of 500  acres (2. 0  km2) began to be developed in an area between northern New South Wales and Cooktown. Today there are several producers of Arabica coffee in Australia that use a mechanical harvesting system invented in 1981. *** CHAPTER – 2 INSIGHT ON COFFEE INSIGHT ON COFFEE |Coffee | |[pic] | |Roasted coffee beans | |Type |Hot or cold beverage | |Country of origin |Ethiopia, and  Yemen | |Introduced |Approx. 15th century AD (beverage) | |Color |Brown | Coffee  is a  brewed  drink  prepared from roasted  seeds, commonly called  coffee beans, of the  coffee plant. They are seeds of coffee cherries that grow on trees in over 70 countries. Green coffee, for example, is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Due to its  caffeine  content, coffee can have a stimulating effect in humans. Today, coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide. It is thought that the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant was first recognized in  Yemen  in Arabia and the north east of  Ethiopia, and the cultivation of coffee first expanded in the Arab  world. The earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the  Sufi  monasteries of the  Yemen  in southern  Arabia. From the  Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to  Indonesia, and to the Americas. Coffee has played an important role in many societies throughout history. In Africa and Yemen, it was used in religious ceremonies. As a result, the  Ethiopian Church  banned its secular consumption until the reign of EmperorMenelik II of Ethiopia. It was banned in  Ottoman  Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons,  and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe. Coffee berries, which contain the coffee bean, are produced by several species of small  evergreen  bush of the  genus  Coffea. The two most commonly grown are  Coffea canephora  (also known as  Coffea robusta) and  Coffea arabica. Both are cultivated primarily in  LatinAmerica,Southeast Asia, and Africa. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for 12 countries in 2004,  and in 2005, it was the world’s seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value. Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment. Many studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and certain medical conditions; whether the overall effects of coffee are ultimately positive or negative has been widely disputed. However, the method of brewing coffee has been found to be important. Biology Several species of shrub of the genus  Coffea  produce the berries from which coffee is extracted. The two main cultivated species,  Coffea canephora(also known as  Coffea robusta) and  C. arabica, are native to subtropical Africa and southern Asia. Less popular species are  C.liberica,  excelsa,stenophylla,  mauritiana, and  racemosa. They are classified in the large family  Rubiaceae. They are  evergreen  shrubs or small trees that may grow 5  m (15  ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 10–15  cm (4-6  in) long and 6  cm (2. 4  in) wide. Clusters of fragrant white flowers bloom simultaneously and are followed by oval berries of about 1. 5  cm. Green when immature, they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turning black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the berries  have only one; these are called  peaberries. Berries ripen in seven to nine months. Cultivation Coffee is usually propagated by seeds. The traditional method of planting coffee is to put 20  seeds in each hole at the beginning of the  rainy season; half are eliminated naturally. A more effective method of growing coffee, used in Brazil, is to raise seedlings in nurseries, which are then planted outside at 6 to 12  months. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice, during the first few years of cultivation. [pic]. Map showing areas of coffee cultivation: r:Coffea canephora m:Coffea canephora  and  Coffea arabica a:Coffea arabica Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from  C. arabica) is considered more suitable for drinking than robusta coffee (from  C. canephora); robusta tends to be bitter and have less flavor but better body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide is  C. arabica. However,  C. canephora  is less susceptible to disease than  C. arabica  and can be cultivated in  environments  where  C. arabica  will not thrive. Robusta coffee also contains about 40–50% more caffeine than arabica. For this reason, it is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial coffee blends. Good quality robustas are used in some  espresso  blends to provide a better foam head, a full-bodied result, and to lower the ingredient cost. The species  Coffea liberica  and  Coffea esliaca  are believed to be indigenous to  Liberia  and southern  Sudan, respectively. Most arabica coffee beans originate from either  Latin America,  eastern Africa, Arabia, or Asia. Robusta coffee beans are grown in western and  central Africa, throughout  southeast Asia, and to some extent in Brazil. Beans from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by differences in flavor, aroma,  body, or acidity. These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the coffee’s growing region, but also on genetic subspecies (varietals) and processing. Varietals are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as  Colombian,  Java  or  Kona. Production Brazil  is the world leader in production of green coffee, followed by  Vietnam  and  Colombia  the last of which produces a much  softer coffee. |Top twenty green coffee producers  Ã¢â‚¬â€ Tonnes (2007) and Bags thousands (2007) | |Country |Tonnes |Bags thousands | |[pic]  Brazil |2,249,010 |36,070 | |[pic]  Vietnam |961,200 |16,467 | |[pic]  Colombia |697,377 |12,515 | |[pic]  Indonesia |676,475 |7,751 | |[pic]  Ethiopia |325,800 |4,906 | |[pic]  India |288,000 |4,148 | |[pic]  Mexico |268,565 |4,150 | |[pic]  Guatemala |252,000 |4,100 | |[pic]  Peru |225,992 |2,953 | |[pic]  Honduras |217,951 |3,842 | |[pic]  Cote d’Ivoire |170,849 |2,150 | |[pic]  Uganda |168,000 |3,250 | |[pic]  Costa Rica |124,055 |1,791 | |[pic]  Philippines |97,877 |431 | |[pic]  El. Salvador |95,456 |1,626 | |[pic]  Nicaragua |90,909 |1,700 | |[pic]  Papua New Guinea |75,400 |968 | |[pic]  Venezuela |70,311 |897 | |[pic]  Madagascar[note 2] |62,000 |604 | |[pic]  Thailand |55,660 |653 | |  Ã‚  World |7,742,675 |117,319 | Ecological effects [pic] [pic] A flowering  Coffea arabica  tree in a Brazilian plantation Originally, coffee farming was done in the  shade  of trees, which provided a habitat for many animals and insects. This method is commonly referred to as the traditional shaded method, or â€Å"shade-grown†. Many farmers switched their production method to sun cultivation, in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but requires the clearing of trees and increased use of fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause health problems. When compared to the sun cultivation method, traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce lower yields, but the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior. In addition, the traditional shaded method is environmentally friendly and provides living space for many wildlife species. Opponents of sun cultivation say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution,  habitat destruction, and soil and water degradation are the side effects of these practices. The  American Birding Association,  Smithsonian Migratory Bird- Center, Rainforest Alliance, and the  Arbor Day Foundation  have led a campaign for â€Å"shade-grown† and  organic coffees, which it says are sustainably harvested. However, while certain types of shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, they still compare poorly to native forest in terms of habitat value. Another issue concerning coffee is its  use of water. According to  New Scientist, if using industrial farming practices, it takes about 140 liters of water to grow the coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee, and the coffee is often grown in countries where there is a water shortage, such as  Ethiopia. By using   sustainable agriculture  methods, the amount of water usagecan be dramatically reduced, while retaining comparable yields. Coffee grounds may be used for  composting  or as a  mulch. They are especially appreciated by  worms  and  acid-loving plants  such as  blueberries. *** CHAPTER – 3 TYPES OF COFFEE TYPES OF COFFEE Coffea Arabica | | |Scientific classification | |Kingdom: |Plantae | |(unranked): |Angiosperms | |(unranked): |Eudicots | |(unranked): |Asterids | |Order: |Gentianales | |Family: |Rubiaceae | |Genus: |Coffea | |Species: |C. arabica | |Binomial name | |Coffea arabica |. Coffea arabica is a species of coffee originally indigenous to the mountains of Yemen in the Arabian Peninsula, hence its name, and also from the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia and southeastern Sudan. It is also known as the â€Å"coffee shrub of Arabia†, â€Å"mountain coffee† or â€Å"arabica coffee†. Coffea arabica is believed to be the first species of coffee to be cultivated, being grown in southwest Arabia for well over 1,000 years. It is considered to produce better coffee than the other major commercially grown coffee species, Coffea canephora (robusta). Arabica contains less caffeine than any other commercially cultivated species of coffee. Wild plants grow to between 9 and 12 m tall, and have an open branching system; the leaves are opposite, simple elliptic-ovate to oblong, 6–12  cm long and 4–8  cm broad, glossy dark green. The flowers are white, 10–15  mm in diameter and grow in axillary clusters. The fruit is a drupe (though commonly called a â€Å"berry†) 10–15  mm in diameter, maturing bright red to purple and typically contain two seeds (the coffee ‘bean’). | | Distribution and habitat Originally found in the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, Coffea arabica is now rare there in its native state, and many populations appear to be mixed native and planted trees. It is common there as an understorey shrub. It has also been recovered from the Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan. Coffea arabica is also found on Mt Marsabit in northern Kenya, but it is unclear whether this is a truly native or naturalised occurrence. Yemen is also believed to have native Coffea arabica growing in fields. Cultivation Coffea arabica takes about seven years to mature fully and does best with 1- 1. 5 meters (about 40-59  inches) of rain, evenly distributed throughout the year. It is usually cultivated between 1,300 and 1,500 m altitude, but there are plantations as low as sea level and as high as 2,800 m. The plant can tolerate low temperatures, but not frost, and it does best when the temperature hovers around 20  °C (68  °F). Commercial cultivars mostly only grow to about 5 m, and are frequently trimmed as low as 2 m to facilitate harvesting. Unlike Coffea canephora, Coffea arabica prefers to be grown in light shade. Two to four years after planting Coffea arabica produces small, white and highly fragrant flowers. The sweet fragrance resembles the sweet smell of jasmine flowers. When flowers open on sunny days, this results in the greatest numbers of berries. This can be a curse however as coffee plants tend to produce too many berries; this can lead to an inferior harvest and even damage yield in the following years as the plant will favor the ripening of berries to the detriment of its own health. On well kept plantations this is prevented by pruning the tree. The flowers themselves only last a few days leaving behind only the thick dark green leaves. The berries then begin to appear. These are as dark green as the foliage, until they begin to ripen, at first to yellow and then light red and finally darkening to a glossy deep red. At this point they are called ‘cherries’ and are ready for picking. The berries are oblong and about 1  cm long. Inferior coffee results from picking them too early or too late, so many are picked by hand to be able to better select them, as they do not all ripen at the same time. They are sometimes shaken off the tree onto mats, which means that ripe and unripe berries are collected together. The trees are difficult to cultivate and each tree can produce anywhere from 0. 5–5  kg of dried beans, depending on the tree’s individual character and the climate that season. The real prize of this cash crop are the beans inside. Each berry holds two locules containing the beans. The coffee beans are actually two seeds within the fruit; there is sometimes a third seed or one seed, a peaberry in the fruits at tips of the branches. These seeds are covered in two membranes, the outer one is called the ‘parchment’ and the inner one is called the ‘silver skin’. In perfect conditions, like those of Java, trees are planted at all times of the year and are harvested year round. In less ideal conditions, like those in parts of Brazil, the trees have a season and are harvested only in winter. The plants are vulnerable to damage in poor growing conditions and are also more vulnerable to pests than the Robusta plant. Gourmet coffees are almost exclusively high-quality mild varieties of coffea arabica, like Colombian coffee. Arabica coffee production in Indonesia began in 1699. Indonesian coffees, such as Sumatran and Java, are known for heavy body and low acidity. This makes them ideal for blending with the higher acidity coffees from Central America and East Africa. Coffea canephora | | |Scientific classification | |Kingdom: |Plantae | |(unranked): |Angiosperms | |(unranked): |Eudicots ||(unranked): |Asterids | |Order: |Gentianales | |Family: |Rubiaceae | |Genus: |Coffea | |. Species: |C. canephora | |Binomial name | |Coffea canephora | Coffea canephora (Robusta Coffee Coffea robusta) is a species of coffee which has its origins in central and western subsaharan Africa. It is grown mostly in Africa and Brazil, where it is often called Conillon. It is also grown in Southeast Asia where French colonists introduced it in the late 19th century. In recent years Vietnam, which only produces robusta, has surpassed Brazil, India, and Indonesia to become the world’s single largest exporter. Approximately one third of the coffee produced in the world is robusta. Canephora is easier to care for than the other major species of coffee, Coffea arabica, and, because of this, is cheaper to produce. Since arabica beans are often considered superior, robusta is usually limited to lower grade coffee blends as filler. It is however often included in instant coffee, and in espresso blends to promote the formation of â€Å"crema†. Robusta has about twice as much caffeine as arabica.

Six Words from Shakespeare for 2014

Six Words from Shakespeare for 2014 Six Words from Shakespeare for 2014 Six Words from Shakespeare for 2014 By Maeve Maddox In honor of the Bard’s birthday, here are six words Shakespeare used that we still find useful to describe life in the 21st century. 1. addiction: the state or condition of being dedicated or devoted to a thing, especially an activity or occupation; adherence or attachment, especially of an immoderate or compulsive kind; immoderate or compulsive consumption of a drug or other substance. Henry V, I.i, 92-97 The Archbishop of Canterbury is talking about the change in the former prince since his accession as king. Since his addiction was to courses vain, His companies unletterd, rude and shallow, His hours filld up with riots, banquets, sports, And never noted in him any study, Any retirement, any sequestration From open haunts and popularity. (i.e., His addiction was to frivolous, debauched behavior and companions.) 2. assassination: the action of assassinating; the taking of the life of anyone by treacherous violence. Macbeth I,vii,1-4 Macbeth is trying to make up his mind to murder King Duncan. If it were done when tis done, then twere well It were done quickly: if the assassination Could trammel up the consequence, and catch With his surcease success; 3. drugged: to drug: to mix or adulterate (food or drink) with a drug, especially a narcotic or poisonous drug. Macbeth, II, ii, 7-10 Lady Macbeth is assuring her husband that killing Duncan will be easy because she has put a sleeping potion in the nighttime drinks of his guards. I have druggd their possets, That death and nature do contend about them, Whether they live or die. 4. equivocal: of words, phrases, etc.: having different significations equally appropriate or plausible; capable of double interpretation; ambiguous. All’s Well That Ends Well V, iii, 279-281 Parolles is being deliberately deceptive. Parolles: He loved her, sir, and loved her not. King: As thou art a knave, and no knave. What an equivocal companion is this! 5. marketable: Fit to be sold or marketed; that finds a ready market; that is in demand; saleable. As You Like It, I, ii, 84-89 Two marriage-eligible women are being sarcastic about an annoying courtier. Celia: Here comes Monsieur Le Beau. Rosalind: With his mouth full of news. Celia: Which he will put on us, as pigeons feed their young. Rosalind: Then shall we be news-crammed. Celia: All the better; we shall be the more marketable. 6. torture: To inflict torture upon, subject to torture; to subject to judicial torture; put to the torture (from the noun torture: The infliction of severe bodily pain, as punishment or a means of persuasion). King Henry VI, Part II, II, i , 154-158 The Duke of Gloucester is speaking to Simpcox, a man who claims to have received his sight that day after having been blind from birth, and who further claims to be unable to walk. Gloucester proves the man is a fraud by threatening him with a whipping by the local law-enforcement officer. Gloucester: Now, sirrah, if you mean to save yourself from whipping, leap me over this stool and run away Simpcox: Alas, master, I am not able to stand alone You go about to torture me in vain. . Note: One blow of the whip is enough to encourage Simpcox to jump over the stool and run away. William Shakespeare 23 April 1564–23 April 1616 Happy Birthday, Will! Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:How to Structure A Story: The Eight-Point Arc45 Synonyms for â€Å"Old† and â€Å"Old-Fashioned†Charles's Pen and Jesus' Name

Free Essays on All-in-1 Toothpaste

Strengths 1.Unique Product Our All-in-1 toothpaste will encompass all the qualities of the top toothpastes into 1 tube. Our All-in-1 toothpaste will provide tartar control, whitening, cavity protection, fresh taste, mouthwash, and more. We will market this toothpaste as being the best toothpaste to satisfy all users in a household, our toothpaste is the new â€Å"family toothpaste† or has the qualities to satisfy every user in the house. Weakness 1.New Company Being a new company is a weakness in itself. We do not have a loyal customer base nor do we have any brand recognition. Through creative marketing we hope to create a curious buzz regarding our product. We want consumers to be so interested in our product that they run right out and purchase it. Opportunities 1.Need Everyone needs to use toothpaste in order to clean their teeth. Perception is a huge drive behind the need for clean teeth. Seventy-one percent of Americans said they are less likely to marry someone with bad teeth and 74% believe bad teeth can hurt career success, according to the Mentadent Smart Mouth survey. Also, 33% said whitening is the attribute they look for most when shopping for toothpaste. Threats 1.Competition Globally Colgate commands a market share of 80% or more. Its numbers aren't quite so dominant in the U.S., but Colgate grabbed the lead over Procter & Gamble's Crest after launching Total toothpaste in late 1997. At that time the U.S. Food & Drug Administration's approved Total as the only toothpaste that reduces the gum disease gingivitis. The result, it's now the No. 1 toothpaste recommended by dentists. Thanks to such relentless marketing, Colgate continues to chew up the competition. It accounts for more than one-third of all toothpaste sales in the U.S. while once-dominant Crest holds a 29% market share. Marketing Objectives We will be marketing the All-in-1 toothpaste by promoting the basics ... Free Essays on All-in-1 Toothpaste Free Essays on All-in-1 Toothpaste Strengths 1. Unique Product Our All-in-1 toothpaste will encompass all the qualities of the top toothpastes into 1 tube. Our All-in-1 toothpaste will provide tartar control, whitening, cavity protection, fresh taste, mouthwash, and more. We will market this toothpaste as being the best toothpaste to satisfy all users in a household, our toothpaste is the new â€Å"family toothpaste† or has the qualities to satisfy every user in the house. Weakness 1. New Company Being a new company is a weakness in itself. We do not have a loyal customer base nor do we have any brand recognition. Through creative marketing we hope to create a curious buzz regarding our product. We want consumers to be so interested in our product that they run right out and purchase it. Opportunities 1. Need Everyone needs to use toothpaste in order to clean their teeth. Perception is a huge drive behind the need for clean teeth. Seventy-one percent of Americans said they are less likely to marry someone with bad teeth and 74% believe bad teeth can hurt career success, according to the Mentadent Smart Mouth survey. Also, 33% said whitening is the attribute they look for most when shopping for toothpaste. Threats 1. Competition Globally Colgate commands a market share of 80% or more. Its numbers aren't quite so dominant in the U.S., but Colgate grabbed the lead over Procter & Gamble's Crest after launching Total toothpaste in late 1997. At that time the U.S. Food & Drug Administration's approved Total as the only toothpaste that reduces the gum disease gingivitis. The result, it's now the No. 1 toothpaste recommended by dentists. Thanks to such relentless marketing, Colgate continues to chew up the competition. It accounts for more than one-third of all toothpaste sales in the U.S. while once-dominant Crest holds a 29% market share. Marketing Objectives We will be marketing the All-in-1 toothpaste by promoting the basics ...

Definition and Examples of Syntactic Ambiguity

Definition and Examples of Syntactic Ambiguity In English  grammar, syntactic ambiguity is  the presence of two or more possible meanings within a single sentence or sequence of words. Also called structural ambiguity or  grammatical ambiguity. Compare with lexical ambiguity  (the presence of two or more possible meanings within a single word). The intended meaning of a syntactically ambiguous sentence can often (but not always) be determined by context. Examples and Observations The professor said on Monday he would give an exam.The chicken is ready to eat.The burglar threatened the student with the knife.Visiting relatives can be boring.This morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas I dont know.(Groucho MarxA lady with a clipboard stopped me in the street the other day. She said, Can you spare a few minutes for cancer research? I said, All right, but were not going to get much done.(English comedian Jimmy CarrPlanes can go around the world, iPhones can do a zillion things, but humans have not invented a machine that can debone a cow or a chicken as efficiently as a human being, says Alan Alanis, a JPMorgan Chase (JPM) analyst.(Bryan Gruley and Lucia Kassai, Brazilian Meatpacker JBS Wrangles the U.S. Beef Industry. Bloomberg Businessweek, September 19, 2013) Types of Ambiguity We can crudely classify the sorts  of ambiguity found in sentences as follows: 1. Pure syntactic ambiguity:old men and womenFrench silk underwear2. Quasi-syntactic ambiguity:The astronaut entered the atmosphere again.a red pencil3. Lexico-syntactic ambiguity:We saw her duck.I saw the door open.4. Pure lexical ambiguity:He reached the bank.What is his position? The statement pure syntactic ambiguity is meant ambiguity in which the variant readings of a sentence involve identical lexical units; the ambiguity is thus necessarily a matter merely of the way the elements are grouped together.(D. A. Cruse, Lexical Semantics. Cambridge University Press, 1986 Using Speech Cues to Decipher Syntactic AmbiguitySome sentences are syntactically ambiguous at the global level, in which case the whole sentence has two or more possible interpretations. For example, They are cooking apples is ambiguous because it may or may not mean that apples are being cooked. . . .One of the ways in which listeners work out the syntactic or grammatical structure of spoken sentences is by using prosodic cues in the form of stress, intonation, and so on. For example, in the ambiguous sentence The old men and women sat on the bench, the women may or may not be old. If the women are not old, then the spoken duration of word men will be relatively long and the stressed syllable in women will have a steep rise in speech contour. Neither of these prosodic features will be present if the sentence means the women are old.(M. Eysenck and M. Keane, Cognitive Psychology. Taylor Francis, 2005 Ambiguous StructuresSyntactic ambiguity occurs when a sequence of words can be structured in alternative ways that are consistent with the syntax of the language. For instance, . . . [this word group] is ambiguous: (1) a. John told the woman that Bill was dating. . . . In 1a, that Bill was dating could either be a relative clause (as in John told the woman that Bill was dating a lie) or a sentence complement (as in John told the woman that Bill was dating a liar).(Patrizia Tabossi et al., Semantic Effects on Syntactic Ambiguity Resolution in Attention and Performance XV, ed. by C. Umilt. MIT Press, 1994)

General Journal Entries, Ledger Accounts, Trial Balance, Income Assignment

General Journal Entries, Ledger Accounts, Trial Balance, Income Statement, Statement of Owners Equity and Balance Sheet (Case of Amal Translation) - Assignment Example In simple definition, General journal is a statement where double entry bookkeeping are posted by debiting an accouting followed by a corresponding crediting of another accounting using the same amount (Carl, James and Jonathan, 2008). Both debited and credited amount should be equal to maintain the accounting equation. Based on the available accounting information system, an organization may use specialized journal alongside the generalized journal entries in order to have an effective record keeping system. In this case, the application of a general journal entries can be limited to adjustments, as well as, in non routine entries. Below is a computed General Journal Entrues for various transaction of the Amal Translation.... 00          Translation Fee Earned    24,000 14-Sep Rental Expense    2100          Account Payable    2100 16-Sep Cash    48,000          Unearned Fees    48,000 20-Sep Wage Expense    4800          Cash    4800 25-Sep Cash    60,000          Account Receivable    60,000 27-Sep Account Payable    7,900          Cash    79,000 28-Sep Repairs Expense    250          Cash    250 29-Sep Amal's Drawing    4960          Cash    4960 29-Sep Note Payable    20,000          Cash    20,000 30-Sep Wage Expense    4800          Cash    4800 30-Sep Advertising Expense    6600          Cash    6600 2.0 Opening Ledger Accounts Leger Accounts Ledger account is the second entry point of business transaction into the company’s accounting system. Accounting information contained in the ledger account relates to daily transactions of the business. It collects all credits and debts that rel ates to the account head within a single space. In this respect, credit and debit entries are two naturally opposing actions. In real practice, the amount use in the transaction off sets against one another. Whatever remain is the balance or the difference after the set off. This difference is referred to as ledger account balance. Ledger balancing is the process of calculating the balances of ledger accounts. Irrespective of the number of credit or debit ledger accounts available, the balance is calculated by setting off total debits of the company against the total credits. The differece between the two sums gives the ledger account balance. When setting off, the assumption made is that greater sum is set off from the smaller sum. The following equations summarizes the interpretation of ledger account balance. (Total debit- Total Credit): Applicable in case debit amount is greater. (Total credit-

Spirituality of Miccosukee Indian tribe Research Paper - 1

Spirituality of Miccosukee Indian tribe - Research Paper Example These spirit animals are often seen in a vision quest that each Native American do when they are young. This vision quest is a time for fasting and prayer and the youth hope to see their totem animal that also becomes their guardian (Gold, 2007). The Florida Seminoles and the Miccosukee believe in a Great Spirit or the Breath Maker who is in charge of making and maintaining life (â€Å"Religion of..†, n.d.). The meaning of life is very important to the Miccosukee because they acknowledge that everything is a part of their environment. All life is important. In the old days, when they hunted, they asked the spirit of the animal that was being killed, for forgiveness (â€Å"Religion of† , n.d.). The Miccosukee would also pray to a spirit of a tree before cutting down the tree. The Miccosukee may state that their strength comes from their religion and the fact that they have not adopted the Western ways. Because they are unique in keeping their customs and history, they would also see their matrilineal foundation as being important to their strength. For Native Americans, everything is spiritual and everything has a presence anywhere in the earth (Johnson, 2007). The sweat lodges and shamans are very important to Native Americans and healthcare. Shamans often help with health issues in the tribe because they understand how to interpret dreams and oversee many rituals that take place within the tribe (Johnson, 2007). The sweat lodge is one of the ways that Native Americans are able to keep balanced with the spirit world and with the creator (Garrett, et al., 2011). For Native Americans, the concept of balance means that they will have balance in mind, body, and spirit â€Å"with the natural environment† (Garrett et al., 2011, p. 318). On the spiritual level, the sweat lodge is also done for transformation and renewal of the spirit. In contrast to the way Westerners believe, the concept of transformation traditionally will be done in the presence of family and

Commonwealth bank of Australia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Commonwealth bank of Australia - Essay Example It is approximately one century since this giant financial institution was formed by the Australian government. However it is currently owned by private investors owing to the move by the Australian government to privatize the bank in 1996. Commonwealth Bank of Australia has continued to expand its operations in various regions through acquisitions, joint partnership and takeover. Commonwealth Bank steady performance in the industry is attributed to a wide range of strategies that include customer satisfaction, business banking, technology and operational excellence, profitable growth as well as trust and team spirit1. From the financial point of view it is evident that Commonwealth Bank has emerged strongly from a humble beginning to be a profitable banking institution in Australia. This clam can be justified by the fact that the Group’s net earnings after tax for the financial year ended 2011/12 hit $6,394 million which is 13% increase compared to the previous year. The Grou p recorded 18.4% and 411.2 cents on Return on equity and Earnings per share respectively. This was a 12% increase compared to prior financial year. The Group declared a final dividend of $ 1.88 per share which was an 11% increase compared to previous financial year2. ... re 10198 Home loans 335841 Construction 3199 Personal 17968 Asset financing 9584 Other commercial and industrial 106762 RATIO’s OF BANK EXAMPLE: RISK RATIO ANALYSIS FOR COMMONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTRALIA BANK OVER THE PERIOD 2010 TO 2010 Ratio Ratio formula Actual figures for Year †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(previous year) ($M) Ratio answer for Year†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (previous year) Actual figures for Year †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦( current year) ($M) Ratio answer for Year†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (current year) Source of information in annual report Comments Interest margin Interest revenue – interest expenses Average earning assets 32,215 – 20,293 553,735 0.02 37,304 – 24,697 576,369 0.02 Income statement p98 and note 2 page 119. The interest margin remain staeble over the two financial period owing to effective risk management strategies Net margin (after Tax) Operating profit after tax Interest income + non-interest income 5,680 32, 215+ 7,366 0.14 6,410 37,304 + 6,790 0.15 Income statement p98 and note 2 p119 The increase in net margin is as a result of Loans, bills discounted and other receivables Asset utilization Interest income + non-interest income Assets 32, 215+ 7,366 646,330 0.06 37,304 + 6,790 667,899 0.07 Income statement p98 and balance sheet p100 The increase in asset utilization ration indicates that the groups management effectively utilized the groups assets . Return on assets Operating profit after tax Equity 5,680 35,570 0.16 6,410 37,287 0.17 Income statement p98 and balance sheet p100 The increase in the return on assets ratio is attributable to the significant increase in the groups long-term assets Leverage multiplier Assets Equity 646,330 35,570 18 667,899 37,287 17 Balance sheet p100 The reduction in the ratio indicates that the group has reduced the level of debt used to finance its capital structure

Hospital Emergency Operations Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hospital Emergency Operations Plan - Essay Example The emergency plan for the hospital has guidelines for facility evacuation. Facility evaluation is undertaken when the present environment cannot adequately ensure patient treatment or care. The University of Toledo Medical center (UTMC) is a component of the University of Toledo Health Science campus; which has several buildings, hospitals, and health sites. All the buildings are interconnected aboveground and underground tunnel infrastructures; separated through firewalls, having different utility systems, and different emergency power sources. Hence, if one part of the building is unusable, an alternative care site can be located in a different equipped building. The UTMC has also collaborated with other community partners, to establish an alternative care site at the Collier Building; therefore, medical staff or students can continue caring for the relocated patients. During patient relocation, copies of medical records and other medical items are sent to the alternative clinic s ites. Communication and transport infrastructure and services between the hospital and the alternative clinic sites are coordinated in the Hospital command Center in liaison with the Lucas County Emergency Operation Coordinator. In addition, the Hospital Council of Northwest Ohio in collaboration with regional health providers, have initiated a plan for opening a major alternative care facility.The HICS has a flexible method to emergency management which can be utilized in various disaster responses.

Strategic marketing communications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Strategic marketing communications - Essay Example Bottom up processing is one where the lower levels of management communicate with the higher level of management and this is where ideas might be floated up and also problems and concerns about various factors within the organization are communicated to the higher levels so that they can take action and solve the problems, the more efficient this process, the more loyal the employees are to the company because if they feel that they are being heard by the upper management they feel that they are a part of the organization as well because they have a role to play in the betterment of the organization and that is why their problems are being heard and solved. This kind of communication can be encouraged in many ways, for example having the same lunch or refreshment areas for all the levels of employees so that they can communicate in an environment with out being intimidated by the rank of the person that they wish to communicate with, the top management should be seen by the lower lev els of the employee ranks because that helps them to identify with individuals and the organization on the whole. Top down processing is where the top levels of management communicate with their subordinates with respect to the job instructions and other types of policy implementation, this kind of processing is very important because the dynamics of the organization depend on such type of a communications policy, generally it has been seen that companies that have a effective top down communication strategy have been able to reap much more employee loyalty and productivity rather than those companies that have a poor strategy in top down processing of communication, this is because companies that are better at this kind of communication can implement change effectively and frequently because they can communicate the though process behind the change process to the lower levels of employees and the employees feel and believe that the company has their betterment in mind when it feels the need to change any of the processes. This kind of communication process can be implemented by having a good telecommunication technology in place because people need to be told simultaneously of the policy changes that are being implemented and it is more faster than normal modes of communication. (Kotelnikov, 2005) (Monmouth, 2006) Managing Partnerships The horizontal communication process takes place between employees at the same levels, or managers at the same level, for example the marketing manager of an organization speaking to the financial manager and discussing the marketing budget. This kind of communication is very important because this is where bottlenecks can be created or avoided and projects can be given a boost, for strengthening this kind of process infrequent communication and communication in a work free environment or a casual environment can be encouraged. At this level partnerships and cross functional teams are created that help each other to achieve the organization's goal more effectively and efficiently. (Kotelnikov, 200

Hospital Emergency Operations Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hospital Emergency Operations Plan - Essay Example The emergency plan for the hospital has guidelines for facility evacuation. Facility evaluation is undertaken when the present environment cannot adequately ensure patient treatment or care. The University of Toledo Medical center (UTMC) is a component of the University of Toledo Health Science campus; which has several buildings, hospitals, and health sites. All the buildings are interconnected aboveground and underground tunnel infrastructures; separated through firewalls, having different utility systems, and different emergency power sources. Hence, if one part of the building is unusable, an alternative care site can be located in a different equipped building. The UTMC has also collaborated with other community partners, to establish an alternative care site at the Collier Building; therefore, medical staff or students can continue caring for the relocated patients. During patient relocation, copies of medical records and other medical items are sent to the alternative clinic s ites. Communication and transport infrastructure and services between the hospital and the alternative clinic sites are coordinated in the Hospital command Center in liaison with the Lucas County Emergency Operation Coordinator. In addition, the Hospital Council of Northwest Ohio in collaboration with regional health providers, have initiated a plan for opening a major alternative care facility.The HICS has a flexible method to emergency management which can be utilized in various disaster responses.

The Hurricane Disaster Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 17

The Hurricane Disaster - Article Example The information does not dwell on a particular aspect of the disaster hence providing a very detailed report. The information is a lot but clearly presented with supporting evidence from officials handling the disaster rescue and recovery operation. The last article in the USA Today is not clear at all. It had information jumbled up and provides a lot of unnecessary information to the case. The timeliness is effective but the lack of clarity affects the understanding of the length information from the researchers (Cooper & Swanson, 2005). The article by Kay, (2005) can be said to be the most informative. This is so because it provides well-rounded information about the disaster without dwelling on only one area of it or deviating completely from the events of the disaster hence making the information lack clarity. The authors of this article discussed on the human deaths and injuries experienced, the property damages to the infrastructure especially, the financial implications of the disaster as well as seeking verification of the rescue efforts in place as well as other communication details that seem minute but very effective. The fact that the article discusses the disaster based on opinion and facts provided by several officials and not only the governor like in the previous article makes it even more informative. The article in The New York Times is written in informal communication style compared to the other two articles. The informal writing is meant to be understood by all the people without discriminating others from feeling worthy of the news article they are reading. The informal style enables a clearer understanding of the events and connects with the emotions of the audience. An example about reports from survivors â€Å"†¦were left clinging to the remains of their house when a 23-foot surge of water hit it, flexing the roof like a deck of cards (Treaster & Zernike, 2005).†

A Superior Personality Essay Example for Free

A Superior Personality Essay Every person looks up to a model personality. For some, it could be a fictitious hero like Superman, Spiderman, or Wonder Woman. For others, it could be a successful businessman like Bill Gates or the very young Google creators Sergey Brin and Larry Page. Still, others look up to great leaders like Abraham Lincoln and George Washington. These people with superior personality serve as our role models for they have set the standards for success and self-fulfillment. However, being successful is not just measured by the positions we hold in the government, or the amount of money we make annually. Superiority and success are likewise found in the ability to help others live decently, and empower them to realize their goals. While others tread their ways to success in comfortable living, some choose the thorny path where the needy, the poor, and the helpless awaited resurrection. Among those who chose the second path was Jane Addams, the co-founder of the Hull House, and the first American woman who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. In this paper, we shall analyze the superiority in the personality of Jane Addams—her characteristics as a leader and the reasons why she stood above the rest—in relation to the theories of Sigmund Freud, Carl Rogers, Gordon Allport, John Watson, and Otto Rank. Short Biography Jane Addams (1860-1935) was born in Cedarville, Illinois to a family of six children. Her mother died when she was two years old, leaving them with their father who was a local miller, political leader, and later a senator. Her father served as a strong influence in Addams’ life until she grew up. After Addams attended Rockford Female Seminary where she graduated as valedictorian, she wanted to take up medicine but her father feared that this move will lead her not to marry and have her own family. Therefore, to dissuade her thoughts from attending school, he organized a family tour to Europe, thinking that this would make Addams change her mind. However, John Addams died of acute appendicitis while on vacation. This affected the whole family, and in particular, Jane, who after the tour, enrolled in the medical school. She did not find the same vigor that she had before about medical school, and she was hospitalized often when they went back to the U. S. Finally, after her recovery from spine surgery, she was advised to return to Europe where she discovered what she was longing for. Seeing the Toynbee Hall in London’s slum area, Addams started heading towards the direction of fulfilling her life-long mission. After her second visit to Europe, Addams got the inspiration to establish the Hull House in 1889. By 1893, the foundation already served 2,000 persons, offering intervention in the form of schooling, medical care, legal aid, childcare, and the arts. After founding the Hull House, she launched different projects to help the less fortunate and the weak, among them were Immigrants’ Protective League, and the Juvenile Protective Association, among others. Also in 1893, she served as the first woman president of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections. In 1894, she founded the Chicago Federation of Settlements and Neighborhood Centers. Later, she also served as chairwoman of the Labor Committee of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, and took part in the executive board of the National Labor Commission. Just like anyone, Addams had critics who attacked her for her unyielding support of workers. As such, the Hull House suffered in terms of donations, forcing Addams to render lectures on tour, and write articles to support the foundation. This eventually led to the publication of Twenty Years at Hull House, a book which received great public attention. Afterward, despite her criticized efforts to stop war or America’s participation to it, Hull House was still successful. In 1928, Addams suffered from heart attack, which marked the decline of her health. In 1931, she was hospitalized in Baltimore, the same day she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1931, she died of cancer in her own hometown.

Wireless Sensor Networks: Applications and Forms

Wireless Sensor Networks: Applications and Forms 1 Wireless Sensor Network In this chapter, wireless sensor network (WSN) principles are being shortly introduced and discussed. In order to increase the level of understanding for analyzing Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) systems it is useful to study the technology behind them the technologies which are presented in this section. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are distributed and independent sensors that are connected and worked together to measure quantities such as temperature, humidity, pressure, noise levels or vibrations [5]. WSNs can measure vehicular movement (velocity, location, etc.) and monitor conditions such as lightning condition, soil makeup and motion [5]. Nowadays, WSNs are utilized in many common applications such as vehicle applications. Some of vehicle applications are: vehicle tracking and detection, tire pressure monitoring, vehicle speed detection, vehicle direction indicator, traffic control, reversing aid sensors etc. Such applications can be divided in major categories such as safety, security, environment and logistics. To implement WSN in an application and have an efficient system, first we need to consider about WSN technology, components and communication topology and protocols. Therefore, first, in this chapter, basic information about WSN components, the communication devices and process unit of WSN will be described. Then, the chapter will be followed by a description of the WSN topologies and protocols emphasizing on mesh WSN technology with ZigBee Protocol. 1.1 Wireless Sensor Network component To provide comprehensive view of WSN hardware, understanding of WSN components structure is required. Wireless sensors are small microcontrollers equipped with wireless communication device and an energy supplier. The architecture of WSNs is illustrated in Figure 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ1 . As Figure 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ1 shows the components of WSNs are sensing unit, processing unit, power supplier and communication device. The sensing unit consists of sensors and Analog to Digital Converters (ADCs). ADCs are responsible for gathering the signals and converting them into digital signals data and transfer them through each other using network topology to the processor unit. In the sensing unit, each sensor is called an ‘end node and varies in size and cost. The mission of these multifunction sensor nodes are to sense, process data and collaborate with other nodes [8]. Wireless sensor network can be positioned in two ways, either using a complex technique with the large sensors far from the object or using several sensors with an engineered design on position and topology [5]. In addition, each node provided with a wireless communication transceiver as a communication component. In the process unit, the controller and small memory storage are responsible for managing the collaboration within the sensors to achieve the assigning task. In addition, the communication device with a transceiver makes the network connection. Above all, the essential component of WSN is the power unit, which supports the power for all units [5]. One of the unique characteristics of sensor networks is that they are equipped with an on-board processor. This feature enables them to locally process some simple computations and broadcast only necessary processed data [5]. Network communication is really complicated and needs years of study [8], but to be able to implement WSN, we need to know some basic primary concepts of communication technology such as; network topologies, network protocol and their standards and specifications. 1.2 Communication technology To cover technical aspects of WSN, network topology and network protocol studying is needed. This study will help to provide information about reliability, robustness, security and stability and of WSNs software aspect to answer the research questions RQ. 1 ,RQ. 2 and RQ. 3 . 1.2.1 Topologies in WSN Communication In network communication, the big issue is how data transfers through nodes and nodes interconnect with each other. Several basic network topologies may be used for transmitting to and receiving from a node. The Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions (ATIS) the standards organization of telecommunication industry explained the network topology as â€Å"The physical, real, logical or virtual arrangement of the nods/elements of a network† [9]. The topology shows the diameter and the number of nodes between any two nodes. Moreover how a data process and the data routing complexities are relied on the chosen topology. Consequently, some characteristics of a sensor networks such as latency, robustness and capacity are changed by their topology [10]. Figure 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ2 is a graphic mapping of networks topology which shows the links of one or more nodes and explains the physical topology of the network. Despite having the same topology, two networks can differ in transmission rates because of their physical interaction, signal types and distance between nodes [9]. Table 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ1 describes the different types of network topology. Table 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ1 Topology TYPES [9]. Since Mesh topology is a main topic in the thesis, it is studied more in-depth in this section 1.2.1.1 Mesh Wireless Network Wireless mesh network is a term used when all wireless nodes are connected to each other within an ad-hoc multi-hob and mesh topology. In this network, any pair of nodes is able to communicate between each other within more than one path. In this network each node is used as a router to forward packets to the neighbor nodes which they have linked to. That means all nodes communicate directly or through other midway nodes without any manual configuration. Therefore, this network also called a self-configuration and self-organized network [11; 12]. As described in Table 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ1, there are two types of mesh topology ‘Partially connected and ‘Fully connected (See Figure 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ3). In a fully connected topology each node has the ability to communicate with all other nodes in the network and creates an interconnection links. By increasing the number of nodes in a mesh network, the number of links increases as well. On the other hand, in a partially connected topology, instead of direct interconnection between nodes, each node has two or more links to others to provide alternate routing and traffic balancing. Due to more links and indirect connections between nodes, traffic can flow through one or more router nodes to the destination [7] and create more reliable interconnections between nodes. Moreover, in partial network, the nodes are connected to either the node with higher rate of data transaction or the nearest neighbor node while in fully connected network all nodes have a direct links with each other. This multiple link path conducts a reliable communication. Therefore, whenever a connection fails or a node breaks down, the packages can automatically change their path by ‘jumping from a disconnected node. This is often called the self-healing of the network. This means that the networks connection stability and reliability are not essentially affected by node failures [11]. Due to the characteristics of wireless sensor network mesh, this network is self-configuring and self-organizing network in which each end-node is also used as a router (dual role- data originator /data router) to forward the signal packages all the way back of the main gateway. Therefore, due to the characteristics of mesh networks, this network is becoming one of the most implemented networks which able to have the flexible architecture for the network, easy self-configuration and robust fault tolerance connectivity [11; 12]. Additionally, the self-configuring characteristic of mesh WSN, bring the ability for the network to connect or disconnect nodes from the network. This brings the ability to grow/decrease the network by adding/removing nodes of a system. Mesh WSN has reliable self-healing and robust fault tolerance. This means if ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­ a node fails or breaks down the signal packages jump from the disconnected node and automatically conducts a new path through the nearest node. However, the new path imposes re-routing and re-organizing to the network [5], which consumes too much power from the system. Therefore, having a power-aware protocol and algorithm is necessary for mesh network. ZigBee protocol is one of the protocols which provides this ability for WSN. 1.2.2 Protocols in WSN Communication WSN systems include variety of protocols for communication. Protocols need to program in different architectural layers. One of these architectural standard is OSI (Open System Interconnection) framework. In this session a brief introduction of each protocol and OSI are delineated. Figure 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ4 shows the graphic overview of all wireless network technologies. This figure illustrated IEEE PAN/LAN/MAN technologies and clearly shows how these standards and protocols can be used in different conditions. For instance, 3G protocol is used to cover a long range of audio information in a wide area network (WAN) while for the same information in a short range and personal area network (PAN), Bluetooth is better. The standard conceptual rules set for data representation, data communication and error detection across two ends in telecommunication, are called communication protocols. These abstract rules represent in different layers of communication. There are different protocol stacks introducing different architectures for these layers such as AppleTalk, Distributed Systems Architecture (DSA), Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) and Open Systems Interconnect (ISO/OSI). Figure 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ5 (a) illustrates the different layers of an OSI Model and their functionalities. The OSI model has seven layers and each layer provides services for the upper layer and requests services from the lower layer. Figure 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ5 (b) shows the typical communication protocols layers. Each of these layers has to deal with different issues regarding the communication procedure. As the typical protocol stack model shows in Figure 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ5 the communication protocols should implement all layers from bottom to top. In addition, a management protocol needs to be applied in each layer to manage power efficiency, robust connectivity and connection reliability (see: Figure 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ5 b). Below, rules and functionality for each layer are described: * Physical layer: is responsible for signal processing and physical interface connectivity between a device and physical medium and used bit stream in its data unit. It acted as communication channel for sensing and actuation in cost-efficient and reliable manner. Some examples of this layer are: IEEE 802.11b/g Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth, IEEE 802.15.4 ZigBee, etc. [7] * Data link layer: provides functionality toward channel sharing, Medium Access Control (MAC-Layer), timing (e.g. data time arrival), local link and capacity. It is responsible for detecting and correcting the data errors in physical layer and control the locality data comparison. It follows the protocols such as point-to-point protocol (PPP) and IEEE 802 Local Link Control (LLC). [7] * Network layer: is responsible for network routing functionality, network security, energy and power efficiency and reliability of the communication. It includes the network topology management and manages the information and detects errors in data transfer from router to router. A number of protocols is address in this layer such as: Internet protocol (IP), Threshold Sensitive Energy Efficient Sensor Network Protocol and etc. [7]. * Transport layer: provides end-to-end transportation (distributing and gathering) of data between end users. It includes storage and responds for caching and controlling the data to recover them back to the initial message that has been sent. Best-known protocols for this layer are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) [7]. * Upper layers: The Upper Layers are responsible for application processing, external query processing and etc. Upper layers include presentation layer session layer and application layer [7]. The summary of these standards and protocols are shown in Figure 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ6 Among all the standard and protocols, IEEE PAN/LAN/MAN technologies are the ones applied in the majority of commercialWSNs to support physical layer and link-data layer signal transmission. As SOHRABY and ZNATI (2007) mentioned, the most common best-known protocols are:† (1) the IEEE 802.15.1 (also known as Bluetooth); (2) the IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n series of wireless LANs; (3) the IEEE 802.15.4 (ZigBee); (4) the MAN-scope IEEE 802.16 (also known as WiMax); and (5) radio-frequency identification (RFID) tagging† [7]. Each of these protocols has their own benefits and constraints. The comparisons between IEEE technologies are mentioned in Table 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ2. As Table 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ2 shows the IEEE 802.15.4 standard provides data rate of 20 to 250 kbps and operates in the 2.4-GHz ISM band. This standard covers signals in range of 10 m and requires the lowest power among other IEEE class. While IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n transmits the data in the rate of 54 Mbps ideal for wi reless internet connections and operates in the 2.4-GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) radio band as well as the 5-GHz ISM / 5-GHz U-NII (Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure) radio band. However, it requires much higher power consumption than IEEE 802.15 [7]. Recently, researchers put much effort to develop â€Å"a cost-effective standards-based wireless networking solution that supports low-to medium data rates, has low power consumption, and guarantees security and reliability† [7]. ZigBee Alliance is an association of companies which aims to provide such a standard for WSN consumers. Their mission is to have a simple, reliable, low-cost, low-power and standards-based wireless platform 1.2.2.1 ZigBee standard The ZigBee standard builds on IEEE 802.15.4 and is suitable for remote monitoring and controlling applications. Although it has lower-data-rates than the other standards, its reliability, security, long life battery with less complexity mechanism make it ideal for building automation in industrial network applications. The architecture of the ZigBee stack is established on the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. The IEEE 802.15.4 defines the physical layer (PHY) and medium access control (MAC) sub-layer and In addition, ZigBee Alliance defines other functionalities for upper layers [7]. Figure 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ7 is a graphic overview of ZigBee protocol stack and shows the responsibility areas of IEEE 802.15.4, ZigBee Alliance platform and users applications [7]. This picture also shows the basic functionality of each layer. The data transmission service is provided by PHY layer and the protocol in this layer enables the connection between data units and the physical radio channel. ZigBee provides three different frequency band options for PHY layer. First, the transmission data-rate of 250kbps in 16 channels at 2.45GHz (Global) frequency. Second, with 40Kbps in 10 channels at 915MHz (Americas). And the last one, with 20kbps in 1 channel at 868MHz (Europe). The higher data-rate causes a higher order in modulation design and the lower frequency cause a larger cover area and better sensitivity. Depending on the power output, the transmission distance rate can change from 1 to 100 meters. (For more detail information see: Table 7à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ1 in Appendix A) ZigBee WSN has the ability to have static or dynamic network/component with either star or mesh topology and it has three types of nodes: a ZigBee Coordinator (ZC), ZigBee Routers (ZR), and ZigBee End-Devices (ZED). In order to have a communication protocol and physical connection both PHY layer and MAC sub-layers of the architecture should be defined upon agreement between server and clients. These layers require manual administrative procedures setting for server/client gateway. The next three levels namely: the network layer, security protocol and transport layer are defined by ZigBee alliance platform automatically. The last layer, application layer, has to interact with the user-interface and other applications; it ought to be programmed with high-level language so that integration with any existing devices applications becomes more conveniently practical. The ZigBee stack in gateway is responsible for all the network functionality such as network process management, authentication of the joined nodes, binding nodes and routing the messages throughout the network. ZigBee stack as a standard protocol, has clusters and libraries for improving the implementation process, therefore, using ZigBee compare to other protocols makes the system (including both hardware and software) development process much faster and easier. On the other hand, such standardisation provides easiness of adopt with third party sensors regardless of manufacturer, which might be attached to the network later. 2 Software Aspects To address the research question regarding the reliability, robustness, and security of any WSN application, it is essential to investigate the software architecture of that network. For convenience in description of the architecture of a WSN application, it is divided into three segments: Physical devices (such as lamps, sensors, nodes), Communication Protocol (terminals and servers, bridge, switch, network topology and standard) and Carried Information (application, functions, etc.). Any attempts to retain a precise design on software architecture for each part will cause an effective data transmission, which ensures reliability and security of the system [7]. Hence achieving any desired data transmission precision level in a WSN, network management (NM) techniques are applicable. Such techniques assist in network status monitoring, reliability and security amendment, and cooperation supervision between components [7]. NM techniques could also detect and resolve network faults in addition to restoring the system respectively [7]. In practice, designing WSN application necessitates tailoring NM techniques for each architectural segment. Various NM techniques regarding each segment are summarized as follows [7; 12; 5]: a) Physical architecture: Sensing and processing management, operation and administration, fault tolerance, maintenance, energy efficiency management, configuration management, performance management, security management, network element management. b) Communication architecture: Network management, networking protocols, network topology, function management, monitoring functions, fault management, performance management, security management, service management and communication, maintenance management, network configuration and organization, network behavior, data delivery model, sensor mobility, naming and localization, sensing coverage area, communication coverage area energy efficiency management c) Information architecture: Real-time information management, mapping management, service management, analyze information, control application, business application management report management, sending and receiving commands or response, naming, localization, maintenance, fault tolerance Aforementioned NM techniques enhance quality of the system. According to ISO 9126-1 software quality model Table 4à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ1 [13; 14; 15], the quality characteristics of a system could be divided into six fundamental properties: functionality, reliability, usability, efficiency, maintainability, and portability. According to the same documentation, these characteristics are broken to sub-characteristics such as suitability, security, maturity, fault tolerance, adaptability, analyzability, stability, testability and so on [13]. However, focusing on all subcategories collectively exceeds the time horizon of this research, from this stance three dimensions namely reliability, robustness and security are brought into attention. This section will be divided to two subsections describing the architecture issues and NM techniques for (1) Reliability and Robustness, (2) Security, of WSN and other characteristics is relegated to future studies. 2.1 Reliability and Robustness In WSNs context, the probability that a network functions properly and aggregates trustworthy data without any interruption continuously, is usually referred to as reliability characteristic of the network [23; 20]. According to ISO 9126-1 software quality documentation, reliability characteristic shows the capability of a network to maintain or re-built (re-start) the service in certain period of time [13]. So, it is important that during long sensing, the network has to service up continuously. Reliable service of a network includes precise and proper sensing, delivering and sending acceptable data to the base station. In other words as Taherkordi et al. (2006) put: â€Å"The less loss of interested data, leads us to higher reliability of a system†. Systematic approach perceives reliability as probability of data delivery to the base station rather than point-to-point reliability [16]. Robustness defined by Sohraby et al. (2007) as: â€Å"a combination of reliability, availability, and dependability requirements†, reflects the degree of the protocol insensitivity to errors and misinformation†. Achieving system robustness in WSN, necessitates system capability to detect, tolerate and confine errors as well as reconfigure and restart the network respectively [7]. According to the given definition by Sohraby et al. (2007), it is apprehensible that reliability and robustness share commonalities with each other; this is the main rational behind discussing these two attributes together in this section [7]. Considering the nature of communication in WSN, a network is unpredictable and prone to fail caused by any physical damages in hardware devices, energy depletion, communication link error, information collapses in packages and etc. [17; 16]. Therefore, one of the critical issues in design phase of WSN is applying fault tolerance techniques to optimize the network so that reliability and robustness attained [17]. These techniques enable the network to withstand and recover any upcoming failure and restart operation [13]. Liu et al. (2009) categorized fault tolerance techniques into: node placement, topology control, target and event detection, data gathering and aggregation, and sensor surveillance. Reminding from the beginning of this chapter architecture design divided into three segments. Table 4à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ2 depicted a summary of the plausible related faults and their solutions in each segment. In the following, each aforementioned fault tolerance techniques are being discussed in each design segment. Table 4à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ2 The most probable fault and their fault tolerance solutions in WSN [17; 7; 18] 2.1.1 Reliability and Robustness of Physical Architecture: Fault: any physical interruption in sensor surveillance Solution: Node placement management and signal-effect management First item that should be considered in designing physical components architecture for reliability and Robustness is: physical placement and signal-effect management. As it is mentioned in section 3, although the mesh network communication is self-organize topology and does not need any manual configuration to bind the network for mobile sensors, the physical architecture and the location schema of the hardware components, sensors and gateways need to be designed carefully [7]. As a characteristic of mesh WSN, the sensors in network are free of any installation restrictions, even though, the placement should be far from any physical destruction or hostile locations. Inappropriate physical placement of sensor transmitters and gateway antenna can cause noise or significant lost in signals [7]. In addition, the signal coverage is decayed by surrounding objects and materials such as metal wall and the like. (E.g. exterior wooden, concrete, brick or gypsum frame, block or wall). Especially in the case of vehicles, the main body can impose such problem and henceforth installation of the sensors in this manner would be delicate. Moreover, the signal waves might be faded and affected during the transmission, due to various physical phenomena such as reflection, diffraction or scattering [7]. These effects would cause significant interruption in sensor surveillance. Therefore, it is important to manage these signal-effects in early stage of WSN physical architecture design. Reflection occurs when electromagnetic wave of signals is duplicated due to impinge of the wave on large object or surface such as walls, buildings and the Earth [7]. Therefore, all the reflection of the walls and also the Earth should be acknowledged in physical architecture design. Diffraction refers to any defection and obstruction in waves caused by irregular sharp edges during the data transmission between the transmitter and receiver [7]. In this case, designers have to be prudent in sensors placements in the proximity of sharp edges and corner angels. Scattering refers to any deviation from straight line. Environmental obstacles in the propagation path affect passing waves from their original structure. Even small irregular object such as street signs, and lampposts might encounter and scatter the wave. Hence WSN should be design to face with any irregular scattering during the wave transmission. Above all, the mobility of sensors and surrounding objects might fade the signals and add noises that should be considered in architecture design [7]. These issues are the basic physical factors, which cause major fault in data aggregation of WSN and cut down reliability and robustness. These destructive signals need to be subtracted from the received signal paths [7] before sending the data to gateway. Therefore, reflection, diffraction and scattering should be considered not only by designers in the physical components placements, but also by programmers in network development. Fault: Sensors failure Solution: Hardware replacement The next issue that needs to be considered in designing the physical architecture of a WSN is hardware failure. Sensors energy suppliers or any damages to the sensors and/or their transmitters are the sources of hardware failure. Regardless of source of failure, the WSN must be capable of functioning as well as replacing and switching sensors when necessary. Additionally, any changes in the physical components, on one hand, needs an explicit and well-defied consideration on security issue to prevent any potential threats, and on the other hand, needs an adaptable and configurable communication connection network [18]. 2.1.2 Reliability and Robustness of Communication Architecture Fault: communication link errors Solution:Topology control and event detection , Replicated services in communication model, Communication link error is an important concern in dealing with reliability and robustness of a network in communication architecture. The sensors in WSN are prone to fail and make link errors in point-to-point reliability of communication protocol. Therefore, it is the network topology responsibility to detect the errors and guarantee the overall reliability of the syste